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Napalm

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This article is about flammable liquids used for flame-type weaponry. For other uses, see Napalm (disambiguation).

North American F-100 Super Sabre dropping napalm in a training exercise

Napalm is an incendiary mixture of a gelling agent and a volatile petrochemical (usually gasoline or diesel fuel). The name is a portmanteau of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: coprecipitated aluminium salts of naphthenic acid and palmitic acid.[1] A team led by chemist Louis Fieser originally developed napalm for the US Chemical Warfare Service in 1942 in a secret laboratory at Harvard University.[2] Of immediate first interest was its viability as an incendiary device to be used in fire bombing campaigns during World War II; its potential to be coherently projected into a solid stream that would carry for distance (instead of the bloomy fireball of pure gasoline) resulted in widespread adoption in infantry and tank/boat mounted flamethrowers as well.

Napalm burns at temperatures ranging from 800 to 1,200 °C (1,470 to 2,190 °F).[3][4] It burns longer than gasoline, is more easily dispersed, and adheres to its targets. These traits make it both effective and controversial. It has been widely used from the air and from the ground, the largest use having been via airdropped bombs in World War II in the incendiary attacks on Japanese cities in 1945. It was used also for close air support roles in the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and various others. Napalm has also fueled most of the flamethrowers (tank-, ship-, and infantry-based) used since World War II, giving them much greater range.

Development

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The development of napalm was precipitated by the use of jellied gasoline mixtures by the Allied forces during World War II.[5] Latex, used in these early forms of incendiary devices, became scarce, since natural rubber was almost impossible to obtain after the Japanese army captured the rubber plantations in Malaya, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand.

This shortage of natural rubber prompted chemists at US companies such as DuPont and Standard Oil of New Jersey, and researchers at Harvard University, to develop factory-made alternatives: artificial rubber for all uses, including vehicle tires, tank tracks, gaskets, hoses, medical supplies and rain clothing. A team of chemists led by Louis Fieser at Harvard University was the first to develop synthetic napalm during 1942.[6] "The production of napalm was first entrusted to Nuodex Products, and by the middle of April 1942 they had developed a brown, dry powder that was not sticky by itself, but when mixed with gasoline turned into an extremely sticky and flammable substance." One of Fieser's colleagues suggested adding phosphorus to the mix which increased the "ability to penetrate deeply [...] into the musculature, where it would continue to burn day after day."[7]

On 4 July 1942, the first test occurred on the football field near the Harvard Business School.[7] Tests under operational conditions were carried out at Jefferson Proving Ground on condemned farm buildings and subsequently at Dugway Proving Ground on buildings designed and constructed to represent those to be found in German and Japanese towns.[8] This new mixture of chemicals was first approved for use on the front lines in 1943.[9]

Military use

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World War II

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Results of a 9 July 1945 napalm strike by a United States Army Air Force on a Japanese outpost off the coast of the island of Borneo

The first use of napalm in combat was in August 1943 during the Allied invasion of Sicily, when American troops, using napalm-fueled flamethrowers, burned down a wheat field where German forces were believed to be hiding.[10] Napalm incendiary bombs were first used the following year, although the exact date and battle are disputed.[a]

Two-thirds of napalm bombs produced during WWII were used in the Pacific War. Napalm was often deployed against Japanese fortifications on Saipan, Iwo Jima, the Philippines, and Okinawa, where deeply dug-in Japanese troops refused to surrender.[11] Following a shortage of conventional thermite bombs, General Curtis LeMay, among other high-ranking servicemen, ordered air raids on Japan to start using napalm instead.[13] A 1946 report by the National Defense Research Council claims that 40,000 tons of M69s were dropped on Japan throughout the war,[14][15] damaging 64 cities and causing more deaths than the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[16]

German fortifications and transportation hubs were targeted with napalm during both Operation Overlord and the Battle of the Bulge, sometimes in conjunction with artillery.[11] During the Allied siege of La Rochelle, napalm was dropped on the outskirts of the Royan pocket, inadvertently killing French civilians.[17]

The Royal Air Force (RAF) used napalm to a limited extent in both the Pacific War and the European Theater.[18][19]

Korean War

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Napalm was widely used by the US during the Korean War.[10][20][21] The ground forces in North Korea holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US Air Force and Navy aviators had control of the air over nearly all of the Korean Peninsula. Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for close air support of the ground troops.[20] Napalm was used most notably at the beginning of the Battle of Outpost Harry.[22][23]

Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that, on an "average good day", UN pilots used 260,000 liters (70,000 US gal; 58,000 imp gal) of napalm, with approximately 230,000 liters (60,000 US gal; 50,000 imp gal) of this thrown by US forces.[10] The New York Herald Tribune hailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".[21] British Prime Minister Winston Churchill privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley, who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".[10]

Vietnam War

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A "Zippo" riverboat of the US Brown-water navy firing an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat-mounted flamethrower in Vietnam

Napalm became an intrinsic element of US military action during the Vietnam War as forces made increasing use of it for its tactical and psychological effects.[9][24] Reportedly about 352,000 tonnes (388,000 short tons; 346,000 long tons) of US napalm bombs were dropped in the region between 1963 and 1973.[10] The US Air Force and US Navy used napalm with great effect against all kinds of targets, such as troops, tanks, buildings, jungles, and even railroad tunnels. The effect was not always purely physical as napalm had psychological effects on the enemy as well.[25]

Others

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During the Greek Civil War, after the capture of Mount Vitsi during Operation Pyrsos, the Hellenic Air Force bombed Mount Grammos—a stronghold for the opposing Democratic Army of Greece—with US-supplied napalm.[26][27]

The French Air Force regularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in both the First Indochina War[28][29] and the Algerian War.[30][31] At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors of Ju 52 planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostly B-26 bombers were used.[citation needed]

Peruvian forces employed napalm throughout the 1960s against both communist insurgents and the Matsés indigenous group; four prominent Matsés villages were bombed during the 1964 Matsés massacres [es].[32]

A variant of napalm was produced in Rhodesia for a type of ordnance known as Frantan from 1968–1978 and was used by the Rhodesian Air Force during the Rhodesian Bush War.[33] At around the same time, the South African Air Force targeted guerrilla bases in Angola with napalm during the South African Border War.[34]

In 2018, Turkey was accused of using napalm in Operation Olive Branch against Kurdish nationalist groups.[35]

Antipersonnel effects

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When used as a part of an incendiary weapon, napalm causes severe burns. During combustion, napalm deoxygenates the available air and generates carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, so asphyxiation, unconsciousness, and death are also possible.[36]

Phan Thi Kim Phuc, burned with napalm at the age of 9 during the Vietnam War

Napalm is lethal even for dug-in enemy personnel, as it flows into foxholes, tunnels, and bunkers, and drainage and irrigation ditches and other improvised troop shelters. Even people in undamaged shelters can be killed by hyperthermia, radiant heat, dehydration, asphyxiation, smoke exposure, or carbon monoxide poisoning.[36] Crews of armored fighting vehicles are also vulnerable, due to the intense heat conducted through the armor. Even in the case of a near miss, the heat can be enough to disable a vehicle.[37]

One firebomb released from a low-flying plane can damage an area of 2,100 square meters (2,500 sq yd).[36]

International law

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International law does not specifically prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets,[38] but use against civilian populations was banned by the UN Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) in 1980.[39] Protocol III of the CCW restricts the use of all incendiary weapons, but a number of countries have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), countries are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, as long as they ratify at least two of the five protocols. Approximately 25 years after the General Assembly adopted it, it was reported that the US signed it on 21 January 2009, Barack Obama's first full day in office as president.[10] Its ratification is subject to a reservation that says that the treaty can be ignored if it would save civilian lives.[40] The UN has also acknowledged that the US had ratified the CCW in March 1995, 13 years after the country became a signatory to it.[41]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Claimed dates including a 15 February air raid on Pohnpei,[9][10] a 6 March air raid on Berlin,[11] and a 18 July air raid on Tinian.[12]

References

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  1. ^ "Oxford Dictionaries – napalm: definition of napalm". Archived from the original on 26 August 2013. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
  2. ^ "Books in brief. Napalm: An American Biography Robert M. Neer Harvard University Press 352 pp". Nature. 496 (7443): 29. 2013. doi:10.1038/496029a.
  3. ^ Szczepanski, Kallie (10 February 2017). "Napalm and Agent Orange in the Vietnam War". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 20 September 2017. Retrieved 27 November 2024.
  4. ^ Dolan, Michael J. (September 1953). "Napalm". Military Review. 13 (6): 9–18.
  5. ^ Fedoroff, Basil T.; Sheffield, Oliver E. (1974). "Flame Throwers—Liquids and Gels". Encyclopedia of Explosives and Related Items. Vol. 6. Morris County: Picatinny Arsenal. pp. F56–F58. LCCN 61-61759 – via Internet Archive.
  6. ^ "Napalm". chm.bris.ac.uk. University of Bristol. 2001. Archived from the original on 17 September 2003. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
  7. ^ a b Lindqvist, Sven (2001). A History of Bombing. New York: The New Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-56584-625-8 – via Internet Archive.
  8. ^ Noyes, W.A. Jr., ed. (1948). Science in World War II: Chemistry. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. pp. 392–393.
  9. ^ a b c Guillaume, Marine (December 2016). "Napalm in US Bombing Doctrine and Practice, 1942-1975" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 14 (23): 1–15.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g Neer, Robert (2013). Napalm: An American Biography. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-07301-2 – via Internet Archive.
  11. ^ a b c Kebler, Brooks E.; Birdsell, Dale (1966). Conn, Stetson (ed.). The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat. Washington D.C.: United States Army. pp. 159–163, 630–635. LCCN 66-60001 – via Internet Archive.
  12. ^ Shaw, Henry I. Jr.; Nalty, Bernard C.; Turnbladh, Edwin T. (1966). Central Pacific Drive. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. 3. Washington D.C.: US Marine Corps. OCLC 927428034 – via Internet Archive.
  13. ^ De Chant, John A. (1947). Devilbirds: The Story of United States Marine Corps Aviation in World War II. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers. p. 155. OCLC 698844424.
  14. ^ Bauer, E.E.; Bogrow, Alexander; Engisch, G.W.; Haworth, M.D.; Hulse, S.M.; Keevil, C.S.; Knox, W.T.; McMillen, E.L.; Messing, R.F.; Mysels, K.H.; Reed, C.E.; Stanbury, G.R. (1946). Ewell, Raymond H.; Newhall, Robert M. (eds.). Fire Warfare, Incendiaries and Flame Throwers (PDF). Washington D.C.: National Defense Research Council.
  15. ^ Wellerstein, Alex (30 August 2013). "Who Made That Firebomb?". RESTRICTED DATA: The Nuclear Secrecy Blog. Retrieved 12 September 2020.
  16. ^ Doan-Nguyen, Ryan H. (16 February 2023). "Napalm, Birthed in Harvard's Basement". The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved 25 November 2024.
  17. ^ Zinn, Howard (1997). "The Bombing of Royan". The Zinn Reader: Writings on Disobedience and Democracy. New York: Seven Stories Press. pp. 267–281. ISBN 978-1-888363-54-8 – via Google Books.
  18. ^ McCue, Paul; Baker, Max (1990). SAS Operation Bulbasket: Behind the Lines in Occupied France, 1944. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Books. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-4738-1795-1.
  19. ^ McKinstry, Leo (2011). Hurricane: Victor of the Battle of Britain. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-1-84854-341-6 – via Internet Archive.
  20. ^ a b Harden, Blaine (2 October 2017). "How One Man Helped Burn Down North Korea". POLITICO Magazine. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
  21. ^ a b Pembroke, Michael (2018). Korea: Where the American Century Began. San Francisco: Hardie Grant Books. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-78607-473-7.
  22. ^ Burkhalter, Thomas H. (22 February 1996). "Transcript of an Oral History Interview with THOMAS H. BURKHALTER" (PDF) (Interview). Interviewed by Mark Van Ells. Wisconsin Veterans Museum. Retrieved 26 November 2024. Outpost Harry we got air support, a mixed blessing... God, they'd drop napalm from enormous heights over there.
  23. ^ Elphick, James (28 January 2019). "How the soldiers of Outpost Harry decimated an entire Chinese Division". We Are The Mighty. Retrieved 26 November 2024.
  24. ^ Rohn, Alan (18 January 2014). "Napalm in Vietnam War". The Vietnam War. Retrieved 28 October 2019.
  25. ^ "Liquid Fire – How Napalm Was Used in the Vietnam War". www.warhistoryonline.com. Nikola Budanovic. June 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2017.
  26. ^ House, Jonathan M. (2014). A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-8061-4690-4 – via Google Books.
  27. ^ Featherstone, Kevin; Papadimitriou, Dimitris; Mamarelis, Argyris; Niarchos, Georgios (2011). The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-230-29465-3 – via Google Books.
  28. ^ Fall, Bernard B. (1961). Street Without Joy. Harrisburg: Stackpole Books. pp. 34–37, 197. OCLC 1020224769 – via Internet Archive.
  29. ^ Grant, Rebecca (August 2004). "Dien Bien Phu" (PDF). Air Force Magazine. Vol. 87, no. 8. pp. 78–86. Retrieved 27 November 2024.
  30. ^ Stora, Benjamin (October 2007). "Avoir 20 ans en Kabylie" [Being 20 years old in Kabylie]. L'Histoire (in French). No. 324. pp. 28–29. Retrieved 27 November 2024.
  31. ^ Kellou, Dorothee M. (18 April 2012). A Microhistory of the Forced Resettlement of the Algerian Muslim Population During the Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962): Mansourah, Kabylia (PDF) (MA thesis). Georgetown University. Retrieved 27 November 2024.
  32. ^ Colby, Gerard; Dennett, Charlotte (1995). Thy Will Be Done – The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil. New York: HarperPerennial. p. 466, 491-493. ISBN 978-0-06-016764-6 – via Internet Archive.
  33. ^ Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy. London: The Anti-Apartheid Movement. 1979. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-900065-04-0.
  34. ^ Nortje, Piet (2003). 32 Battalion: The Inside Story of South Africa's Elite Fighting Unit. New York: Zebra Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-1-86872-914-2.
  35. ^ Dettmer, Jamie (28 January 2018). "Kurds Accuse Turks of Dropping Napalm". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 8 August 2020.
  36. ^ a b c Vearrier, David (2 March 2022). Dembek, Zygmunt F. (ed.). "Napalm Exposure". eMedicine. Retrieved 26 November 2024.
  37. ^ Seymour M. Kaye (1 January 1978). "Napalm". Encyclopedia of explosives and related items. Vol. 8. Picatinny Arsenal. pp. N2–N3. LCCN 61-61759.
  38. ^ Omara-Otunnu, Elizabeth (8 November 2004). Napalm Survivor Tells of Healing After Vietnam War. University of Connecticut Advance.
  39. ^ "worldinbalance.net". www.worldinbalance.net. Archived from the original on 4 October 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
  40. ^ Los Angeles Times (24 February 1995). "Military in no hurry to dispose of napalm". Baltimore Sun. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  41. ^ "UNTC". Treaties.un.org. Retrieved 15 March 2022.
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