Jump to content

Liberal conservatism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Free Market Conservatism)
This article is about the political philosophy of conservatism as influenced by liberalism. For the conservative wing of the liberal movement, see Conservative liberalism.
For the Canadian political party, see Liberal-Conservative Party.
Not to be confused with Libertarian conservatism.
Part of a series on
Conservatism
Variants
Principles
Intellectuals
Politicians
Religion
Personal variants
National variants
Related ideologies
Related topics
Part of a series on
Liberalism
Schools
Principles
History
Philosophers
Politicians
Organizations
Regional variants
Related topics

Liberal conservatism is a political ideology combining conservative policies with liberal stances, especially on economic issues but also on social and ethical matters,[1] representing a brand of political conservatism strongly influenced by liberalism.

The ideology incorporates the classical liberal view of minimal government intervention in the economy, according to which individuals should be free to participate in the market and generate wealth without government interference.[2] However, liberal conservatives also hold that individuals cannot be thoroughly depended on to act responsibly in other spheres of life; therefore, they believe that a strong state is necessary to ensure law and order and that social institutions are needed to nurture a sense of duty and responsibility to the nation.[2] Liberal conservatives also support civil liberties, along with some socially conservative positions. They differ on social issues, with some being socially conservative and others socially liberal, though all liberal conservatives broadly support the rule of law regarding civil rights, social equality and the environment.[3][4] This is equated with the creation of a cohesive and tolerant society with increased levels of individual responsibility and less inequality.[5]

Liberal conservatism shares the classical liberal tenets of a commitment to individualism, belief in negative freedom, a lightly regulated free market, and a minimal rule of law state.[6] A number of commentators have stated that many conservative currents in the 1980s, such as Thatcherism,[2] were rejuvenated classical liberals in all but name.[6] However, in contrast to classical liberalism there is a stronger social agenda and support for a greater degree of state intervention especially in certain areas of social life which liberal conservatives believe should not be subject to market forces.[6] Particularly in regards to the family, sexuality, health and education, these should either always be periodically regulated or minimally protected by the state.[6]

Overview, definitions and usage

[edit]

Both conservatism and liberalism have had different meanings over time in different centuries. The term liberal conservatism has been used in quite different ways. It usually contrasts with aristocratic conservatism, which deems the principle of equality as something discordant with human nature and emphasizes instead the idea of natural inequality. As conservatives in democratic countries have embraced typical liberal institutions such as the rule of law, private property, the market economy and constitutional representative government, the liberal element of liberal conservatism became consensual among conservatives. In some countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, the term liberal conservatism came to be understood simply as conservatism in popular culture,[7] prompting some conservatives who embraced more strongly classical-liberal values to call themselves libertarians instead.[8] However, there are differences between classical liberals and libertarians.[9]

In their embrace of liberal and free market principles, European liberal conservatives are clearly distinguishable from those holding national-conservative, fully socially conservative and/or outright populist views, let alone a right-wing populist posture. Being liberal often involves stressing free market economics and the belief in individual responsibility together with the defense of civil rights and support for a limited welfare state.[citation needed] Compared to other centre-right political traditions such as Christian democracy, liberal conservatives are less socially conservative and more economically liberal, favouring low taxes and minimal state intervention in the economy.[citation needed] Some regional varieties and peculiarities can be observed:

At the European level, Christian democrats and most liberal conservatives are affiliated to the European People's Party (EPP), while liberals (including conservative and social liberals) to the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party (ALDE Party). In this context, some traditionally Christian-democratic parties (such as Christian-Democratic and Flemish in Belgium, the Christian Democratic Appeal in the Netherlands, the Christian Democratic Union in Germany and the People's Party in Austria) have become almost undistinguishable from other liberal-conservative parties. On the other hand, newer liberal-conservative parties (such as New Democracy in Greece, the Social Democratic Party in Portugal, the People's Party in Spain, Forza Italia/The People of Freedom/Forza Italia in Italy, the Union for a Popular Movement/The Republicans in France and most centre-right parties from countries once belonging to the Eastern Bloc and Yugoslavia) have not adopted traditional labels, but their ideologies are also a mixture of conservatism, Christian democracy and liberalism.

In the modern European discourse, liberal conservatism usually encompasses centre-right political outlooks that reject at least to some extent social conservatism. This position is also associated with support for moderate forms of social safety net and environmentalism (see also green conservatism and green liberalism). This variety of liberal conservatism has been espoused by Nordic conservatives (the Moderate Party in Sweden, the Conservative Party in Norway and the National Coalition Party in Finland) which have been fending off competition from right-wing populists to their right and do not include Christian democrats; and at times the British Conservative Party. In an interview shortly after taking office as Prime Minister in 2010, David Cameron introduced himself as a liberal conservative.[10] During his first speech to a party conference in 2006, Cameron had defined this as believing in individual freedom and human rights, but being skeptical of "grand schemes to remake the world".[11]

Relation to American conservatism

[edit]
This article is part of a series on
Conservatism
in the United States
Schools
Principles
History
Intellectuals
Politicians
Jurists
Commentators
Activists
Literature
Concerns
Parties
Active

Defunct

Think tanks
Media

Newspapers

Journals

TV channels

Websites

Other

Other organizations

Economics

Gun rights

Identity politics

Nativist

Religion

Watchdog groups

Youth/student groups

Miscellaneous

Other

Movements
Related

In the United States, conservatives often combine the economic individualism of classical liberals with a Burkean form of conservatism that emphasizes the natural inequalities between men, the irrationality of human behavior as the basis for the human drive for order and stability and the rejection of natural rights as the basis for government.[12] From a different perspective, American conservatism (a "hybrid of conservatism and classical liberalism") has exalted three tenets of Burkean conservatism, namely the diffidence toward the power of the state, the preference of liberty over equality and for patriotism while rejecting the three remaining tenets, namely loyalty to traditional institutions and hierarchies, skepticism regarding progress and elitism.[13][clarification needed] Consequently, the term liberal conservatism is not used in the United States. Modern American liberalism happens to be quite different from European liberalism and occupies the centre-left of the political spectrum, in contrast to many European countries where liberalism is often more associated with the centre and centre-right while social democracy makes up a substantial part of the centre-left. The opposite is true in Latin America, where economically liberal conservatism is often labelled under the rubric of neoliberalism both in popular culture and academic discourse.[14]

Although libertarian conservatism has similarities to liberal conservatism with both being influenced by classical liberal thought,[15] libertarian conservatism is far more anti-statist than liberal conservatism and is much more hostile to government intervention in both social and economic matters.[16] Combining conservative cultural principles but with less social intervention and a more laissez faire economic system. Neoconservatism is sometimes described as the same or similar to liberal conservatism in Europe.[17] However, Peter Lawler has regarded neoconservatism in the United States as conservative liberalism and distinguished it from liberal conservatism.

Classical conservatism and economic liberalism

[edit]
Edmund Burke

Historically, conservatism in the 18th and 19th centuries comprised a set of principles based on concern for established tradition, respect for authority and religious values. This form of traditionalist or classical conservatism is often considered to be exemplified by the writings of Joseph de Maistre in the post-Enlightenment age. Contemporaneous liberalism, now recalled as classical liberalism, advocated both political freedom for individuals and a free market in the economic sphere. Ideas of this sort were promulgated by John Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Ben Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, Edward Gibbon, David Hume, Adam Smith, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, who are respectively remembered as the fathers of liberalism, including economic liberalism, the separation of church and state, social liberalism and utilitarianism.

Alexis de Tocqueville

According to scholar Andrew Vincent, the maxim of liberal conservatism is "economics is prior to politics".[18] Others emphasize the openness of historical change and a suspicion of tyrannical majorities behind the hailing of individual liberties and traditional virtues by authors such as Edmund Burke and Alexis de Tocqueville[19] as the basis of current liberal conservatism which can be seen both in the works of Raymond Aron and Michael Oakeshott. However, there is general agreement that the original liberal conservatives were those who combined conservative social attitudes with an economically liberal outlook, adapting a previous aristocratic understanding of natural inequalities between men to the rule of meritocracy, without directly criticizing privileges of birth as long as individual liberties were guaranteed. Over time, the majority of conservatives in the Western world came to adopt free market economic ideas as the Industrial Revolution progressed and the monarchy, aristocracy and clergy lost their wealth and power, to the extent that such ideas are now generally considered as part of conservatism. Nonetheless, the term liberal is used in most countries to describe those with free-market economic views. This is the case in continental Europe,[20] Australia[21] and Latin America.[22]

Liberal-conservative parties or parties with liberal-conservative factions

[edit]

Current parties

[edit]

Historical parties or factions

[edit]

Liberal-conservative organisations

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The LDP was described as a liberal or conservative-liberal party in the 1990s and prior to the 1990s, and was described as a liberal-conservative before the Second Abe Cabinet, but since 2012, LDP has been controversial related to ultranationalism and fascism. (Major LDP members are linked to the far-right Nippon Kaigi.)[58][59]
  2. ^ The AKP was described as a liberal-conservative and conservative-liberal, but there is controversy; a study by the V-Dem Institute at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden found that the AKP is illiberal.[87]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2020). "Content". Parties and Elections in Europe.
  2. ^ a b c McAnulla 2006, p. 71.
  3. ^ Gibbon, Gary (7 October 2015). "David Cameron tries to return to his liberal Conservatism mission". Channel 4 News.
  4. ^ "What was David Cameron's Conservatism? (overview)". Britpolitics.
  5. ^ Redford, Pete. "Cameron and Welfare: Questioning the liberal Conservatism project" (PDF). LSE Research Online.
  6. ^ a b c d Vincent 2009, p. 335.
  7. ^ Johnston 2007, p. 155.
  8. ^ Grigsby, Ellen: Analyzing Politics: An Introduction to Political Science. Cengage Learning, 2011.
  9. ^ van de Haar 2015, p. 71.
  10. ^ Cameron, David (2010-05-16). "I am a Liberal Conservative". BBC. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
  11. ^ "Full text of David Cameron's speech to the Conservative Party conference", BBC, October 2006
  12. ^ Grigsby, Ellen: Analyzing Politics: An Introduction to Political Science. Cengage Learning, 2011. p.106-112
  13. ^ Wooldridge, Adrian; Micklethwait, John (2011). The Right Nation: Why America is Different. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 9780241958896 – via Google Books.
  14. ^ Bethell, Leslie: The Cambridge History of Latin America: Latin America since 1930. Cambridge University Press, 1991.
  15. ^ Van de Haar 2015, p. 71.
  16. ^ Heywood 2004, p. 337.
  17. ^ Oleksii Stus; Dmytro Finberg; Leonid Sinchenko, eds. (2021). Ukrainian Dissidents: An Anthology of Texts. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 346. ISBN 9783838215518. The tendency of neoconservatism (liberal conservatism) is most clearly represented by the literary ...
  18. ^ Vincent 2009, pp. 65–66.
  19. ^ Lakoff, Sandoff, "Tocqueville, Burke, and the Origins of Liberal Conservatism." The review of politics 60(3), pp. 435–464, 1998. doi:10.1017/S003467050002742X
  20. ^ Slomp, Hans (2011-09-26). Europe, a Political Profile: An American Companion to European Politics. ABC-Clio. pp. 106–108. ISBN 9780313391828 – via Google Books.
  21. ^ Goldfarb, Michael (20 July 2010). "Liberal? Are we talking about the same thing?". BBC News. Retrieved 6 July 2016.
  22. ^ MacLean, James. ""The Two Meanings of "Liberalism"". Retrieved 6 July 2016.
  23. ^ http://www.eliamep.gr/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/bn1.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  24. ^ Casal Bértoa, Fernando; Dumont, Patrick (2022). Party Politics in European Microstates. Routledge. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-315-20677-6. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
  25. ^ Sergio D. Morresi & Gabriel Vommaro, The Difficulties of the Partisan Right in Argentina: The Case of the PRO Party Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, Draft, March 2013
  26. ^ Nicole A. Thomas; Tobias Loetscher; Danielle Clode; Mike Nicholls (May 2, 2012). "Right-Wing Politicians Prefer the Emotional Left". PLOS ONE. 7 (5): 4. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...736552T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036552. PMC 3342249. PMID 22567166. The Liberal Party of Australia has an ideology in line with liberal conservatism and is therefore right of centre.
  27. ^ Ralph P Güntzel (2010). Understanding "Old Europe": An Introduction to the Culture, Politics, and History of France, Germany, and Austria. Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag. p. 162. ISBN 978-3-8288-5300-3.
  28. ^ a b Janusz Bugajski (2002). Political Parties of Eastern Europe: A Guide to Politics in the Post-Communist Era. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-1-56324-676-0.
  29. ^ Maipose, Gervase S. (2008). "Policy and Institutional Dynamics of Sustained Development in Botswana". Commission on Growth and Development (35): 20–21. hdl:10986/28032.
  30. ^ a b Paul Lewis (2002). Political Parties in Post-Communist Eastern Europe. Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-134-63437-8.
  31. ^ Sonja Schüler (2016). ""I am not so much afraid of the Minister of Culture, but rather of the Minister's Culture" About the Lack of Political Legitimacy in Bulgaria". In Sonja Schüler (ed.). Exchange, Dialogue, New Divisions?: Ethnic Groups and Political Cultures in Eastern Europe. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 163. ISBN 9783643802095.
  32. ^ Michel Ducharme; Jean-François Constant, eds. (2009). Liberalism and Hegemony: Debating the Canadian Liberal Revolution. Springer Nature. p. 150. ISBN 9780802098825.
  33. ^ Arceneaux, Craig; Pion-Berlin, David (2005), Transforming Latin America: The International And Domestic Origins Of Change, University of Pittsburgh Press, p. 148
  34. ^ John Nagle; Alison Mahr (1999). Democracy and Democratization: Post-Communist Europe in Comparative Perspective. SAGE Publications. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-7619-5679-2.
  35. ^ a b c d e Elizabeth Bakke (2010). "Central and Eastern European party systems since 1989". In Sabrina P. Ramet (ed.). Central and Southeast European Politics since 1989. Cambridge University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-1-139-48750-4.
  36. ^ Otto Eibl; Michal Pink (2016). "Election Results, Candidate Lists and the Framing of Campaigns". In Ruxandra Boicu; Silvia Branea; Adriana Stefanel (eds.). Political Communication and European Parliamentary Elections in Times of Crisis: Perspectives from Central and South-Eastern Europe. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 258. ISBN 978-1-137-58591-2.
  37. ^ "Portret tjedna/Andrej Plenković, kandidat za šefa HDZ-a: Salonski političar i HDZ-ov liberal, antipod Karamarku". 25 June 2016.
  38. ^ a b Peter Humphreys; Michael Steed (3 November 1988). "Identifying Liberal Parties". In Emil J. Kirchner (ed.). Liberal Parties in Western Europe. Cambridge University Press. pp. 408–409. ISBN 978-0-521-32394-9.
  39. ^ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2019). "Denmark". Parties and Elections in Europe.
  40. ^ a b c Kjetil Duvold (2017). "When Left and Right is a Matter of Identity: Overlapping Political Dimensions in Estonia and Latvia". In Andrey Makarychev; Alexandra Yatsyk (eds.). Borders in the Baltic Sea Region: Suturing the Ruptures. Springer. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-352-00014-6.
  41. ^ Mads Dagnis Jensen (2015). "The Nordic Countries and the European Parliament". In Caroline Howard Grøn; Peter Nedergaard; Anders Wivel (eds.). The Nordic Countries and the European Union: Still the Other European Community?. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-317-53661-1.
  42. ^ "Finland—Political parties". Norwegian Centre for Research Data. Retrieved 8 March 2019.
  43. ^ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2017). "France". Parties and Elections in Europe. Archived from the original on 24 April 2020. Retrieved 16 May 2020.
  44. ^ Martin Steven (2018). "Conservatism in Europe—The Political Thought of Christian Democracy". In Mark Garnett (ed.). Conservative Moments: Reading Conservative Texts. Textual Moments in the History of Political Thought. London: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 96. ISBN 9781350001558. OCLC 1006441779.
  45. ^ Gordon Smith (1995). "The Moderate Right in the German Party System". In Peter H. Merkl (ed.). The Federal Republic of Germany at Forty-Five: Union Without Unity. Peter Lang. p. 269. ISBN 978-1-349-13520-2.
  46. ^ Ricky Van Oers (2013). Deserving Citizenship: Citizenship Tests in Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 263. ISBN 978-9-00-425107-6.
  47. ^ Sylvia Kritzinger; Carolina Plescia; SKolja Raube; James Wilhelm; Jan Wouters, eds. (2020). Assessing the 2019 European Parliament Elections. Taylor & Francis. p. 263. ISBN 9781000057263. As in 2014, seven minor parties with vote shares below 5 per cent gained seats in the European Parliament, ranging from single-issue parties like the Animal Protection Party (one seat) or the Family Party (one seat) to the satirical 'Die Partei' (two seats) or the liberal-Conservative 'Free Voters'.
  48. ^ José María Magone (2003). The Politics of Southern Europe: Integration Into the European Union. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-275-97787-0.
  49. ^ Christina Bergqvist (1999). Equal Democracies?: Gender and Politics in the Nordic Countries. Nordic Council of Ministers. p. 319. ISBN 978-82-00-12799-4.
  50. ^ Agust Thor Arnason (2006). "The European Union Seen From the Top – A View of an Inside-Outsider". In Joakim Nergelius (ed.). Nordic and Other European Constitutional Traditions. BRILL. p. 34. ISBN 978-90-474-0978-6.
  51. ^ Kerstin Hamann; John Kelly (2010). Parties, Elections, and Policy Reforms in Western Europe: Voting for Social Pacts. Routledge. p. 1980. ISBN 978-1-136-94986-9.
  52. ^ a b Melanie Magin; Marius G. Vigen (2021). "When Nothing Happened, but Much Changed: How Political Parties in Ireland Used Facebook in the 2019 European Parliament Election Campaign". In Jörg Haßler; Melanie Magin; Uta Russmann; Vicente Fenoll (eds.). Campaigning on Facebook in the 2019 European Parliament Election: Informing, Interacting with, and Mobilising Voters. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 137. ISBN 9783030738518.
  53. ^ Amnon Rapoport (1990). Experimental Studies of Interactive Decisions. Kluwer Academic. p. 413. ISBN 0792306856. Likud is a liberal-conservative party that gains much of its support from the lower and middle classes, and promotes free enterprise, nationalism, and expansionism.
  54. ^ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2018). "Italy". Parties and Elections in Europe.
  55. ^ Karan, Pradyumna P. (2005), Japan in the 21st century: environment, economy, and society, University Press of Kentucky, ISBN 978-0813137773
  56. ^ Omar Noman (2010). Responsible Development: Vulnerable Democracies, Hunger and Inequality. Routledge. p. 123. ISBN 9781135180751.
  57. ^ William D. Hoover (2011). William D. Hoover (ed.). Historical Dictionary of Postwar Japan, First Edition. Scarecrow Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-8108-7539-5.
  58. ^ "Beautiful Harmony: Political Project Behind Japan's New Era Name – Analysis". eurasia review. 16 July 2019. The shifting dynamics around the new era name (gengō 元号) offers an opportunity to understand how the domestic politics of the LDP's project of ultranationalism is shaping a new Japan and a new form of nationalism.
  59. ^ "Shinzo Abe and the long history of Japanese political violence". The Spectator. 9 July 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2023. As the French judge at the trial, Henri Bernard, noted, Japan's wartime atrocities 'had a principal author [Hirohito] who escaped all prosecution and of whom in any case the present defendants could only be considered accomplices.' The result was that whereas ultranationalism became toxic in post-war Germany, in Japan neo-fascism — centred around the figure of the emperor — retained its allure and became mainstream albeit sotto voce within Japan's ruling Liberal Democratic Party.
  60. ^ O'Toole, Gavin (2007). Politics Latin America. Pearson Education. p. 383. ISBN 9781405821292.
  61. ^ Abdo Baaklini; Guilain Denoeux; Springborg, Robert (1999), Legislative Politics in the Arab World: The Resurgence of Democratic Institutions, Lynne Riener, p. 129
  62. ^ Uribe Burcher, Catalina; Casal Bértoa, Fernando (15 November 2018). Political Finance in Mongolia: Assessment and Recommendations (PDF) (Report). International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance; Open Society Forum. p. 13. doi:10.31752/idea.2018.68. ISBN 978-91-7671-217-7. Retrieved 22 June 2020.
  63. ^ Zappulla, Roberta (2017). Challenges for the National League for Democracy in Achieving Peace and Democracy in Myanmar (PDF). Metropolitan University of Prague – via Research gate. The firm ideology of the NLD founds a new facet amid democratic liberalism and liberal conservatism.
  64. ^ Arco Timmermans; Edwin van Rooyen; Gerrit Voerman (26 November 2014). "Policy analysis and political party think tanks". In Frans van Nispen; Peter Scholten (eds.). Policy analysis in the Netherlands. Policy Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-1-4473-1333-5.
  65. ^ Liubomir K. Topaloff (2012). Political Parties and Euroscepticism. Springer. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-137-00968-5.
  66. ^ José M. Magone (2017). The Statecraft of Consensus Democracies in a Turbulent World: A Comparative Study of Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Switzerland. Taylor & Francis. p. 112. ISBN 978-1-315-40785-2.
  67. ^ Vowles, Jack (1987). The New Zealand Journal of History. University of Auckland. p. 225. [T]he National Party is both conservative and liberal, its liberalism containing both elements of classical and new liberalism, the implications of the latter also overlapping with elements of conservatism. Within the National Party, it is the liberals rather than the conservatives who are most self-conscious and vocal, although the conservatives most frequently seem to prevail.
  68. ^ VMRO-DPMNE (Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization – Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity) | https://vmro-dpmne.org.mk/
  69. ^ "Valgomaten: Riksdekkende 2007". Aftenposten. 2007. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
  70. ^ André Krouwel (2012). Party Transformations in European Democracies. SUNY Press. p. 348. ISBN 978-1-4384-4483-3.
  71. ^ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2020). "Romania". Parties and Elections in Europe. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
  72. ^ "2016 Russia legislative elections: State Duma". Parties and Elections in Europe. 2016. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
  73. ^ "Program Narodne stranke". Narodna Stranka.
  74. ^ Čamprag, Nebojša (2019-01-02). "Re-imagineering Belgrade and Skopje: urban megaprojects between politics and struggle". European Planning Studies. 27 (1): 181–200. doi:10.1080/09654313.2018.1545011. ISSN 0965-4313. S2CID 158202545.
  75. ^ Dérens, Jean-Arnault (2016-12-01). "Rewriting Balkan history". Le Monde. Retrieved 2022-09-28.
  76. ^ Alfio Cerami (2006). Social Policy in Central and Eastern Europe: The Emergence of a New European Welfare Regime. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 29–. ISBN 978-3-8258-9699-7.
  77. ^ Inmaculada Egido (2005). Transforming Education: The Spanish Experience. Nova Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-59454-208-4.
  78. ^ Fernando Reinares (2014). "The 2004 Madrid Train Bombings". In Bruce Hoffman; Fernando Reinares (eds.). The Evolution of the Global Terrorist Threat: From 9/11 to Osama bin Laden's Death. Columbia University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-231-53743-8.
  79. ^ Derbyshire, J. Denis; Derbyshire, Ian (2016). Encyclopedia of World Political Systems. Routledge. pp. 247, 249. ISBN 978-0-76568-025-9. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
  80. ^ Peter Viggo Jakobsen (2006). Nordic Approaches to Peace Operations: A New Model in the Making?. Taylor & Francis. pp. 184–. ISBN 978-0-415-38360-8.
  81. ^ Hariz Halilovich (2013). Places of Pain: Forced Displacement, Popular Memory and Trans-local Identities in Bosnian War-torn Communities. Berghahn Books. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-85745-777-6.
  82. ^ "Liberala partier i Sveriges riksdag & deras ideologiska hållning".
  83. ^ Martin L Lasater, ed. (2019). The Changing Of The Guard: President Clinton And The Security Of Taiwan. Routledge.
  84. ^ Satrusayang, Cod (2021). "Thailand". Thai Enquirer. Archived from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
  85. ^ Ahmet Yıldız (25 March 2008). "Problematizing the Intellectual and Political Vestiges: From 'Welfare' to 'Justice and Development'". In Ümit Cizre (ed.). Secular and Islamic Politics in Turkey: The Making of the Justice and Development Party. Routledge. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-134-15523-1.
  86. ^ Tanil Bora (2013). "Notes on the White Turks Debate". In Riva Kastoryano (ed.). Turkey Between Nationalism and Globalization. Routledge. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-415-52923-5.
  87. ^ Borger, Julian (26 October 2020). "Republicans closely resemble autocratic parties in Hungary and Turkey – study". The Guardian.
  88. ^ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2019). "Ukraine". Parties and Elections in Europe. Archived from the original on 10 March 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  89. ^ Stephen Driver (2011). Understanding British Party Politics. Polity. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-7456-4077-8.
  90. ^ Slomp 2011, p. 107.
  91. ^ Martínez, Magdalena (2019-11-25). "Luis Lacalle Pou, el peso de un apellido". El País (in Spanish). ISSN 1134-6582. Retrieved 2020-02-27.
  92. ^ Kirby, Peadar (2003), Introduction to Latin America: Twenty-First Century Challenges, Sage, p. 157
  93. ^ "Liberální strana". liberalove.bluefile.cz (in Czech). Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  94. ^ "Unie svobody – zoufalé hledání identity". www.witzany.cz. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  95. ^ "Politická strana Realisté po třech letech končí, rozhodli členové". Idnes. 22 July 2019. Retrieved October 3, 2019.
  96. ^ David Hanley (1999). "France: Living with Instability". In David Broughton (ed.). Changing Party Systems in Western Europe. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-85567-328-1. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
  97. ^ Alistair Cole (2003). "Stress, strain and stability in the French party system". In Jocelyn Evans (ed.). The French Party System. Manchester University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7190-6120-2.
  98. ^ Nordsieck, Wolfram (2012). "France". Parties and Elections in Europe. Archived from the original on 23 May 2015.
  99. ^ Pratapchandra Rasam, Vasanti (1997). Swatantra Party: a political biography. Dattsons. p. 199.
  100. ^ Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the United States Congress. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1955. p. 5443.
  101. ^ Ruth Wodak; John E. Richardson (2013). Analysing Fascist Discourse: European Fascism in Talk and Text. Routledge. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-415-89919-2.
  102. ^ Donatella M. Viola (2015). "Italy". In Donatella M. Viola (ed.). Routledge Handbook of European Elections. Routledge. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-317-50363-7.
  103. ^ Ilaria Riccioni; Ramono Bongelli; Andrzej Zuczkwoski (2013). "The communication of certainty and uncertainty in Italian political media discourses". In Anita Fetzer (ed.). The Pragmatics of Political Discourse: Explorations across cultures. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 131. ISBN 978-90-272-7239-3.
  104. ^ Pallaver, Günther (2008). "South Tyrol's Consociational Democracy: Between Political Claim and Social Reality". In Jens Woelk; Francesco Palermo; Joseph Marko (eds.). Tolerance Through Law: Self Governance and Group Rights in South Tyrol. Leiden, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 309. ISBN 978-90-04-16302-7. OCLC 646789592.
  105. ^ Murakami, Hiroshi [in Japanese] (2009). "The changing party system in Japan 1993-2007: More competition and limited convergence" (PDF). Ritsumeikan Law Review. 26. Ritsumeikan University: 30. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
  106. ^ William D. Hoover (2019). William D. Hoover (ed.). Historical Dictionary of Postwar Japan, Second Edition. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 268. ISBN 9781538111567.
  107. ^ Hideko Magara (2012). "Divergent fate of left parties in political economic regime transitions: Italy and Japan in the 1990s". In Masanobu Ido (ed.). Varieties of Capitalism, Types of Democracy and Globalization. Taylor & Francis. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-136-34270-7.
  108. ^ Caroline Miller (2011). Implementing Sustainability: The New Zealand Experience. Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-136-85441-5.
  109. ^ Aleks Szczerbiak (2006). "The Polish centre-right's (last?) best hope: The rise and fall of Solidarity Electoral Action". In Aleks Szczerbiak; Seán Hanley (eds.). Centre-right Parties in Post-communist East-Central Europe. Psychology Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-415-34781-5.
  110. ^ "What about the re-establishment of the four-party system, the future political circle?". 아이뉴스21 (in Korean). 3 February 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2020.
  111. ^ "New conservative party sets sail ahead of April parliamentary elections". The Korean Herald. 11 June 2021. After the impeachment of Park in 2016, he left the Saenuri Party and joined the minor conservative Bareun Party. He then moved to the liberal-conservative Bareunmirae Party after the Bareun Party and minor liberal People's Party were merged.
  112. ^ Elizabeth Özdalga (2013). "Reflections on the Relationship Between Imaginative Literature and Religious and National Identities". In Riva Kastoryano (ed.). Turkey Between Nationalism and Globalization. Routledge. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-415-52923-5.
  113. ^ "Meet The New Conservative Think-Tanks Hoping To Reboot The Tories". HuffPost UK. 2018-05-24. Retrieved 2019-03-27.
  114. ^ "Winners & Losers: Hungary's opposition primaries first-round recap". Kafkadesk. 2021-10-02. Retrieved 2021-11-27.

General and cited references

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Liberal_conservatism&oldid=1250098365"